Chapter 8 DEVOTIONAL PATHS TO THE DIVINE

The Idea Of A Supreme God

Before the emergence of large kingdoms, people worshipped various local gods and goddesses. As towns, trade, and empires grew, new ideas gained prominence. The concept of a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, influenced by good and bad deeds, became widely accepted. The notion that social inequality existed from birth, with privileges based on family or caste, was also prevalent. Many found this social order unjust and turned to Buddhism or Jainism, which emphasized personal effort to overcome social differences and break the cycle of rebirth. Others were drawn to the idea of a Supreme God who, through devotion (bhakti), could liberate individuals from this bondage, a concept popularized by the Bhagavadgita.

Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga became supreme deities worshipped through elaborate rituals. Local deities were often identified with these major gods, integrating their myths and legends into Puranic narratives and local cults. The Puranas eventually propagated the idea that God's grace was accessible irrespective of caste, making the concept of bhakti broadly appealing, even to Buddhists and Jainas.

A New Kind Of Bhakti In South India – Nayanars And Alvars

Between the 7th and 9th centuries, new religious movements emerged in South India, led by the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu). These saints came from diverse social backgrounds, including "untouchable" communities like the Pulaiyar and Panars. They were critical of Buddhism and Jainism, advocating ardent love for Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation. Drawing inspiration from Sangam literature, they blended ideals of love and heroism with bhakti values. The Nayanars and Alvars traveled extensively, composing devotional songs set to music, praising the deities in the temples they visited. By the 10th to 12th centuries, Chola and Pandya kings built temples around these sacred sites, strengthening the connection between bhakti and temple worship. Hagiographies (biographies of saints) of the Alvars and Nayanars also emerged, serving as important historical sources.

Philosophy And Bhakti

Two influential philosophers shaped the understanding of bhakti during this period. Shankara, born in Kerala in the 8th century, championed Advaita (non-dualism), emphasizing the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God (Brahman). He taught that Brahman is formless and the world is an illusion (maya), advocating renunciation and the pursuit of knowledge for salvation. Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the 11th century and influenced by the Alvars, proposed Vishishtadvaita (qualified oneness). He believed that devotion to Vishnu, coupled with His grace, was the path to salvation, and that the soul, even when united with God, retained its distinctiveness. Ramanuja's philosophy inspired a new wave of bhakti in North India.

Basavanna’s Virashaivism

In the mid-12th century, the Virashaiva movement, initiated by Basavanna and his companions in Karnataka, emerged as a reaction against Brahmanical caste ideology and the treatment of women. The Virashaivas advocated for the equality of all human beings and strongly opposed ritualistic practices and idol worship. Their sayings, known as vachanas, critiqued social hierarchies, as exemplified by Basavanna's offering of his own body as a temple to God, questioning the need for physical temples for the wealthy.

The Saints Of Maharashtra

From the 13th to 17th centuries, Maharashtra witnessed a flourishing bhakti tradition led by saint-poets like Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Eknath, and Tukaram, as well as women like Sakhubai and members of Chokhamela's family, who belonged to the "untouchable" Mahar caste. Their devotional songs in Marathi, centered around the Vitthala temple at Pandharpur, emphasized a personal God residing in people's hearts. These saints rejected rituals, ostentatious displays of piety, and birth-based social distinctions. They preferred family life and honest labor while serving those in need, promoting a humanist ideal of sharing others' suffering. Abhangs by saints like Tukaram and Chokhamela's son convey powerful messages about equality, compassion, and challenging the prevailing social order.

Nathpanthis, Siddhas And Yogis

Several religious groups, including the Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis, emerged during this period, criticizing the ritualistic aspects of conventional religion and societal norms through reasoned arguments. They advocated renunciation of the world and believed that salvation could be achieved through intense mind and body training, including yogasanas, breathing exercises, and meditation to realize oneness with the formless Ultimate Reality. These groups gained popularity, particularly among the lower castes, and their critique of traditional religion paved the way for devotionalism to become a significant force in North India.

Islam And Sufism

Sufis were Muslim mystics who emphasized love, devotion to God, and compassion for all beings, rejecting outward religiosity and elaborate rituals. While Islam stressed strict monotheism, Sufis provided a dimension of personal devotion to God. They developed methods for spiritual training, including chanting (zikr), contemplation, music (sama), dancing (raqs), and guided meditation under a spiritual master (pir), forming various silsilas (lines of teachers). Great Sufi poets like Ghazzali, Rumi, and Sadi hailed from Central Asia. From the 11th century onwards, Sufis from Central Asia settled in India, and their influence grew with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. The Chishti order, with teachers like Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti and Nizamuddin Auliya, was particularly influential. Sufi masters held assemblies in their khanqahs (hospices), attracting people from all social strata to discuss spiritual matters, seek blessings, and participate in music and dance. Sufi shrines (dargahs) became pilgrimage sites for people of all faiths.

New Religious Developments In North India

The period after the 13th century saw a resurgence of the bhakti movement in North India, influenced by Islam, Brahmanical Hinduism, Sufism, and the teachings of the Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis. New towns and kingdoms fostered social and economic changes, leading people to adopt new professions and roles. Many of these individuals, including craftspersons, peasants, traders, and laborers, embraced the teachings of new saints. Some, like Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak, challenged established religious traditions and orthodoxies, advocating for a rejection of caste and rituals. Others, such as Tulsidas and Surdas, accepted existing beliefs but aimed to make them more accessible. Tulsidas's devotion to Rama is expressed in the Ramcharitmanas, while Surdas dedicated his compositions to Krishna. Shankaradeva of Assam also emphasized devotion to Vishnu, composing poems and plays and establishing namghars (prayer halls). Other prominent saints included Dadu Dayal, Ravidas, and Mirabai, a Rajput princess known for her intense devotion to Krishna and her challenge to upper-caste norms.

A Closer Look: Kabir

Kabir, believed to have lived in the 15th-16th centuries, was a highly influential saint. Raised by Muslim weavers in Benares, his teachings, preserved in sakhis and pads, vehemently rejected religious traditions, criticized external worship in both Hinduism and Islam, and challenged the priestly class and the caste system. His poetry, written in a widely understood spoken Hindi, often contained cryptic language. Kabir believed in a formless Supreme God and advocated devotion (bhakti) as the sole path to salvation, attracting followers from both Hindu and Muslim communities.

A Closer Look: Baba Guru Nanak

Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539), the founder of Sikhism, traveled extensively before establishing a spiritual center at Kartarpur. His followers practiced communal worship, singing his hymns in a common kitchen (langar), irrespective of their background. This sacred space, known as a dharmsal, is now called a Gurdwara. Baba Guru Nanak appointed a successor, Guru Angad, who compiled his predecessor's compositions, adding his own in the Gurmukhi script. These writings, along with those of other saints, were compiled into the Guru Granth Sahib. The Sikh community grew significantly under his successors, comprising mainly traders, agriculturists, and artisans who were encouraged to lead productive lives and contribute to community funds. By the early 17th century, the town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) developed around the Harmandar Sahib. The Mughal emperor Jahangir viewed the growing Sikh community as a threat, leading to the execution of Guru Arjan in 1606. The politicization of the Sikh movement culminated in the establishment of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699, forming a political entity. Baba Guru Nanak's teachings emphasized the worship of one God, equality regardless of caste, creed, or gender, and the pursuit of an active life with social commitment, summarized as nam-japna (right worship), kirt-karna (honest living), and vand-chhakna (sharing with others).